Ice rinks, refrigeration systems, and industrial cooling infrastructure represent underexamined PFAS exposure environments where the intersection of PFAS-containing equipment materials, contaminated water supplies, and specialized operational practices creates unique contamination pathways. As communities inventory PFAS sources and exposures beyond traditional drinking water, these facilities warrant careful attention.
PFAS in Ice Rink Operations
Commercial and recreational ice rinks face several PFAS-related concerns:
Ice resurfacing water: Zamboni machines and other ice resurfacers use hot water to melt and refreeze the top ice layer, creating a smooth skating surface. The water used comes from the facility’s supply — in PFAS-contaminated areas, this means ice surfaces contain PFAS at concentrations reflecting the water supply. Skaters in contact with ice surfaces and ice spray created during skating receive dermal exposure; hockey players and others who fall and have extended ice contact have more significant dermal exposure.
Refrigeration systems and refrigerants: Older refrigeration systems at some facilities used refrigerants or lubricants that contained PFAS compounds. These materials, if released through leaks or maintenance activities, could contaminate the immediate environment and potentially adjacent groundwater.
Fire suppression in ice facilities: Indoor ice rinks have unique fire suppression challenges due to electrical refrigeration systems. Facilities that used AFFF for fire suppression testing or actual fires have documented PFAS contamination of ice surfaces and the building environment.
Zamboni emissions: Ice resurfacing machines historically used internal combustion engines that produced exhaust, and the ice rink enclosed environment raised concerns about air quality. Some facilities use electric Zambonis specifically to address air quality — but PFAS in the flood water remains a separate concern.
Industrial Cooling Systems
Industrial cooling towers and cooling water systems face PFAS contamination from multiple directions:
Makeup water PFAS: Cooling towers continuously evaporate water, requiring makeup water additions. PFAS in makeup water concentrate in the cooling water as the water evaporates — the same volume reduction process used in early PFAS manufacturing concentration. PFAS concentration factors of 5–10× or higher above source water levels are possible in cooling tower blowdown water.
Legacy cooling water additives: Some industrial cooling water treatment programs historically used fluorinated corrosion inhibitors or scale inhibitors. While these have largely been phased out, legacy contamination in cooling system infrastructure may persist.
Cross-contamination from process PFAS use: In facilities that use PFAS in manufacturing processes, cooling water systems that interface with process equipment may become contaminated through system leaks or cross-connections.
Cooling Tower Blowdown as a PFAS Discharge Pathway
Cooling tower blowdown — the periodic discharge of concentrated cooling water to maintain water quality — is a documented pathway for PFAS discharge to municipal wastewater or surface water. Studies of industrial facilities have identified cooling tower blowdown as a significant PFAS source in some manufacturing sectors.
Regulatory agencies are beginning to address cooling tower PFAS discharge through industrial pretreatment standards and discharge permit requirements. Facilities with elevated PFAS in cooling water should evaluate treatment options (ion exchange, activated carbon) for blowdown water before discharge.
Protective Measures
For ice rinks: testing of ice resurfacing water and implementing point-of-use filtration for this specific application reduces ice surface PFAS in areas with contaminated water supply. For competitive skaters and hockey players who spend many hours at rinks, this represents a meaningful exposure reduction.
For industrial cooling systems: regular testing of makeup water and cooling water for PFAS; evaluation of water treatment additions for PFAS content; and proper management and treatment of blowdown before discharge represent best practices for PFAS-aware facilities management.